Fact Sheets on the European Union
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East Asia

The Indo-Pacific is undergoing rapid change, and as home to more than 50% of the world’s population it is becoming a key geo-strategic region. Two thirds of the world’s container trade passes through the Indo-Pacific and its sea lanes are the main routes for trade and energy supplies. The EU strategy for cooperation in the Indo-Pacific was adopted in September 2021 to increase the EU’s engagement, build partnerships and reinforce the rules-based international order and address global challenges. The Union is adapting its current instruments to support the EU’s strategic autonomy. Its Strategic Compass for Security and Defence, formally approved by the Council in March 2022, promotes an open and rules-based regional security architecture, including secure maritime routes, capacity-building and an enhanced naval presence in the Indo-Pacific. East Asia faces security concerns such as the nuclear challenge in North Korea, the maritime disputes in the East and the South China Seas, and the Taiwan issue. The EU is a strong economic player in East Asia and is working to foster fair trade, multilateralism, institution building, democracy, good governance and human rights.

This fact sheet describes the East Asia region. See also the fact sheets on South Asia (5.6.7) and Southeast Asia (5.6.9).

Legal basis

  • Title V (EU external action) of the Treaty on European Union;
  • Articles 206-207 (trade) and Articles 216-219 (international agreements) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union;
  • Partnership and Cooperation Agreements (bilateral relations).

East Asia

A. China

The EU and China established formal diplomatic ties in 1975. Relations were suspended following the violent crushing of the Tiananmen Square protests by military forces in 1989. The EU only resumed relations in 1994, but its arms embargo imposed in 1989 remains in place.

Under President Xi Jinping, China’s political situation has changed considerably since 2012. In 2018, a revision of the constitution was adopted allowing Xi Jinping to hold the position indefinitely, with no term limit on the post of general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, head of state and of the army. China’s foreign policy has taken a more aggressive and coercive approach, having the world’s largest pool of available active military personnel. China was the world’s second-largest military spender in 2021, after the United States, accounting for about 14% of the world total, with an estimated budget of USD 293 billion. On 17 June 2022, China officially launched its third aircraft carrier, the Fujian (named after the province opposite Taiwan), as part of an ongoing effort to build a fully modern force rivalling the US military by 2027. A fourth carrier is also under construction in China, and it is reported that it might be nuclear powered. China’s naval forces are building warships at a faster rate than all other powers combined. China is expanding and multiplying its military presence in the South China Sea, in the Taiwan Strait and in the Strait of Malacca, which is vital for international trade and especially for Chinese trade.

The growing economic and geopolitical interdependence of the EU and China is reflected in the joint EU-China 2020 Strategic Agenda for Cooperation, which has deepened and broadened cooperation in a wide range of areas, such as foreign and security policy; economic development; global governance and multilateral cooperation in trade and investment; social and environmental areas; and other areas including people-to-people contacts. However, EU-China bilateral relations have deteriorated in 2022, notably as a result of China’s stance on the Russian aggression in Ukraine, on its counter-measures to EU sanctions on human rights, and recently on its economic coercion and aggression in the Taiwan Strait.

China’s position on the Russian aggression against Ukraine has created further tensions between the Western allies and China. While China has not approved the war as such, its ‘neutrality’ towards Russia sets an example for other Asian countries. China has not joined the sanctions against Russia and China-Russia military cooperation has deepened since the Russian invasion of Ukraine, as China has decided to tacitly support Putin. Although China and Russia have no formal military agreement, the two countries have increased arms sales and joint military exercises. In September 2022, China participated in the ‘Vostok 22’ drills on the east coast of Russia, involving around 50 000 troops and 5 000 pieces of military equipment.

For the first time NATO has considered China a challenge in its 10-year strategic concept, which was adopted in Madrid in June 2022. The strategic concept recognises the rising threat China poses, given its growing economic and military influence and increasing belligerence in the Indo-Pacific, including the use of malicious hybrid and cyber operations, as well as confrontational rhetoric, and the fact that it is spreading disinformation to subvert the rules-based international order, including in the space, cyber and maritime domains.

China has been violating Taiwanese waters and air space (stepped up in the summer of 2022), and constructing artificial land and building military facilities in the South China Sea. The EU promotes global governance and a multilateral cooperation approach towards the South China Sea dispute, not interfering in territorial claims, considering freedom of navigation and overflight as a major concern. The EU encourages the parties in the dispute to seek peaceful, negotiated solutions and to abide by international law, in line with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The South China Sea is of huge economic and strategic importance: it is crossed by about one third of the world’s shipping traffic and contains rich fishing and energy resources. China claims roughly 90% of the South China Sea under the ‘nine-dash line’.

China is an economic competitor of the EU and even a systemic rival with its rising political influence reshaping international governance structures. China’s Belt and Road initiative is reaching every corner of the globe, promoting globalisation with Chinese characteristics such as non-transparent contracting, and Chinese labour standards and debt policies. China aims to become the world leader in high-tech industries and digital technologies, including artificial intelligence and 5G. China has been systematically developing influence strategies using disinformation campaigns.

The EU-China leaders’ meeting on 30 December 2020 focused on concluding negotiations for a comprehensive agreement on investment (CAI). The EU took a critical view of the negotiation process, and the existing imbalances and lack of reciprocity in many fields, in particular in the trade and investment relationship. The CAI needs to be ratified by Parliament, which has so far withheld its approval on account of China’s stance on the Russian aggression of Ukraine, its belligerence against Taiwan and the sanctions it imposed in March 2021 on five MEPs and four European entities in retaliation for the Council’s sanctions on China in response to the widespread arbitrary detention of Uyghurs in Xinjiang.

The 23rd EU-China Summit took place in April 2022. The EU and China extensively discussed Russia’s aggression against Ukraine. The EU called on China to support efforts to bring about an immediate end to the bloodshed in Ukraine, consistent with China’s role in the world as a permanent member of the UN Security Council, and its uniquely close relations with Russia. Another point of discussion was the recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, which is a shared priority. The EU confirmed its commitment to work with China and other member states of the World Health Organization on a new agreement on pandemic prevention, preparedness and response. Climate change and economic cooperation were also discussed. The EU reaffirmed its commitment to its One-China policy, while raising concerns about increased cross-strait tensions. 

The ninth EU-China High-Level Economic and Trade Dialogue took place in July 2022, focusing on global economic challenges, disruptions of supply chains caused by COVID-19 and the impact of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, such as on food, energy and financial markets.

The EU and China are major trading partners. In 2021, China was the third most important destination for EU goods exports (10.2%) and the main source of EU goods imports (22.4%). EU imports from China totalled EUR 363 billion in 2019 and EUR 472 billion in 2021. EU exports to China came to EUR 198 billion in 2019 and EUR 223 billion in 2021. This is approximately EUR 1.3 billion per day of imports and EUR 600 million per day of exports, making trade between the EU and China worth a total of EUR 1.9 billion every day. 

Parliament is deeply concerned by the human rights situation in China and has drawn attention to China’s human rights violations, including arbitrary detention, labour camps and the death penalty. Parliament has passed resolutions condemning China’s suppression of political opposition and pro-democracy activists in Hong Kong, expressing concern about the national security law for Hong Kong and calling for the EU to defend Hong Kong’s high degree of autonomy.

Parliament has also raised concerns about Xinjiang and the situation of the Uyghurs, condemning forced labour and the exploitation of Uyghur minorities. Parliament has also adopted resolutions on Tibet, more specifically on the situation of religious and ethnic minorities.

The most recent Parliament resolutions on China were:

B. Taiwan

The EU is committed to the ‘One-China policy’, referring to Taiwan as a separate customs territory and not as a sovereign state, recognising Taiwan as an economic and commercial entity and supporting Taiwan’s participation in multilateral forums. The EU supports peaceful conflict resolution between Taiwan and China and opposes the use or threat of force. The EU has developed a well-structured dialogue on economic and trade matters with Taiwan in sectors such as the car industry, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and medical devices. In 2021, Taiwan was the EU’s 12th-largest trading partner, while the EU was Taiwan’s fifth-largest trading partner, after China, the United States, Hong Kong and Japan. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was also a top trading partner of Taiwan. The total trade in goods between the EU and Taiwan in 2021 stood at around EUR 64 billion, with a trade deficit of EUR 7.1 billion on the EU side. EU-Taiwan bilateral trade grew by 17.8% from 2020 to 2021. The EU’s exports to Taiwan in 2021 amounted to EUR 28.41 billion, while the EU’s imports from Taiwan amounted to EUR 35.57 billion.

The EU and Taiwan also hold annual consultations on various non-trade matters. The third Taiwan-EU Labor Consultation and the fourth Taiwan-EU Human Rights Consultation took place in February and July 2021, respectively. Both parties are committed to promoting and protecting human rights and democratic principles, as well as the rule of law. A broad range topics are also discussed in the annual consultations such as migrant workers’ rights, particularly for domestic workers and in the fishing industry; the death penalty; gender equality and fair treatment for LGBTQIA+ people. In addition, the inaugural EU-Taiwan Occupational Safety and Health Cooperation Meeting was held in May 2021, and the second in May 2022, in which both parties discussed managing the risk of carcinogens in the workplace and safety management for Industry 4.0.

Taiwan held presidential elections in January 2020, with Tsai Ing-wen, the leader of the Democratic Progressive Party, returning for a second term with 57.1% of the votes, ahead of Han Kuo yu of the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) who obtained 38.6%. Independence from mainland China is the main subject of Taiwanese politics, while China is putting diplomatic, economic, military and psychological pressure on Taiwan.

Cross-strait tensions have escalated since the Taiwanese President Tsai Ing-wen won the elections in 2016. China has taken aggressive actions, increasing the frequency and scale of patrols by bombers, fighter jets, and surveillance aircraft around Taiwan. As of 31 May 2022, Taiwan had reported 465 incursions, a near 50% increase compared to 2021. In addition, in 2022 Taiwan is reporting around five million cyberattacks a day from China, targeting its government agencies, semiconductor companies and financial institutions. Parliament has repeatedly encouraged closer bilateral EU-Taiwan cooperation in areas such as trade, research, culture, education, climate change and environmental protection, expressing its support for the launch of negotiations for an EU-Taiwan bilateral investment agreement. Parliament adopted a resolution in September 2021 calling for progress on an EU investment agreement with Taiwan. Parliament has equally supported Taiwan’s meaningful participation in international organisations such as the World Health Organization and the International Civil Aviation Organization. Parliament has also repeatedly urged China to refrain from acts of military provocation towards Taiwan, emphasising that all cross-strait disputes should be settled by peaceful means based on international law.

Taiwan is crucial for the EU as a global supplier of key high-tech sectors, notably semiconductors. On the initiative of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Parliament adopted a specific recommendation on EU relations with Taiwan in October 2021, calling for an urgent start to work on a bilateral investment agreement with the Taiwanese authorities to deepen bilateral economic ties. Parliament supports the inclusion of Taiwan in the EU’s Indo-Pacific Strategy and encourages dialogue and cooperation with Taiwan in all industrial sectors and supply chains, in particular strategically important industries such as semiconductor technologies (Taiwan produces two thirds of the world’s semiconductors and 90% of its high quality semiconductors).

The Special Committee on Foreign Interference in all Democratic Processes (INGE) visited Taipei from 3-5 November 2021, in Parliament’s first official visit to Taiwan. INGE aimed to study Taiwanese experiences in addressing interference and manipulation campaigns and discussed Taiwan’s innovative system to combat disinformation campaigns and other types of hybrid attacks.

US House Speaker Nancy Pelosi’s visit to Taiwan in August 2022 was the highest-level US government visit to Taiwan in 25 years. Many other high-level Western visits followed. China considered these foreign visits to the island to be interference in its affairs and a de facto recognition of Taiwanese sovereignty. Beijing responded by holding unprecedentedly extended military exercises in seven designated areas surrounding Taiwan, using up to 11 ballistic missiles, of which at least five flew over Taiwan and therefore constituted a virtual blockade of Taiwan’s sea and air space. Five of China’s ballistic missiles landed in the Japanese exclusive economic zone and the full-scale military exercises were coupled with intense cyberattacks against Taiwan.

The Commission spokesperson stated that the EU is interested in preserving peace and the status quo in the Taiwan Strait. Tensions should be resolved through dialogue and appropriate channels of communication should be maintained to reduce the risks of miscalculation,

Parliament adopted a resolution in September 2022 on the situation in the Strait of Taiwan, criticising China’s military escalation and rejecting China’s economic coercion. Parliament welcomed the plan by Lithuania to open a trade representative office in Taipei and called on other Member States to follow this example and strengthen their relations with Taiwan.

C. Hong Kong

The EU attaches great importance to Hong Kong’s high degree of autonomy, which must be preserved in line with the Basic Law and international commitments. Continued respect for fundamental rights and freedoms and the independence of the judiciary remain essential for the development of Hong Kong. EU-Hong Kong relations cover trade, economic development, customs cooperation, innovation and technology, competition, food safety, the environment and education. The EU is Hong Kong’s second-largest trading partner after mainland China. In 2021, at least 1 614 EU companies were present in Hong Kong, and many of them were using Hong Kong as a regional headquarters. Bilateral trade in goods totalled EUR 30.5 billion, an increase of 2.5% compared to 2020. EU exports of goods to Hong Kong amounted to EUR 23.5 billion, while imports from Hong Kong totalled EUR 7 billion, resulting in a trade surplus of EUR 16.5 billion. The EU was Hong Kong’s third-largest trading partner in goods in 2021, after mainland China and Taiwan.

The EU removed Hong Kong from the watch list of non-cooperative tax jurisdictions in March 2019, following improvements in good governance. The EU is seriously concerned about the National Security Law (NSL) imposed by China on 30 June 2020. The Vice-President of the Commission / High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (VP/HR) expressed concerns about the conformity of the NSL with the Hong Kong Basic Law, the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration and China’s international commitments. The NSL has been used to suppress Hong Kong’s pro-democracy movement, as any expression of views perceived to be in conflict with the government’s line can lead to arrests and imprisonments. A further worrying aspect is its extraterritorial application.

In July 2020, the EU and its Member States reiterated their support for Hong Kong’s high degree of autonomy under the ‘one country, two systems’ principle, while setting out a coordinated package of measures in fields such as asylum, migration, visa and residence policy, in particular Member States’ extradition arrangements. The package included exports of specific sensitive equipment and technologies for end use in Hong Kong, scholarships and academic exchanges involving Hong Kong students, as well as support to civil society. The government postponed the 2020 elections for the seventh term of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong, using the spread of COVID-19 to justify its decision. Elections took place in December 2021 and, unsurprisingly, pro-China candidates won. The VP/HR Josep Borrell stated that the EU sees this election, in combination with the ongoing pressure on civil society, as yet another step in the dismantling of the ‘one country, two systems’ principle. In addition, in May 2022, the 1 500 members of the Election Committee voted for a single nominee, John Lee Ka-chiu, as the new Chief Executive. The voter support for Lee was 99% compared to 66% for his predecessor, Carrie Lam, who had led Hong Kong from 2017.

Parliament’s recommendation of December 2017, 20 years after the establishment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, stressed that respect for the Basic Law was of key importance for further strengthening of relations with the EU. Parliament condemned China’s interference in Hong Kong’s internal affairs, which may put the long-term viability of the ‘one country, two systems’ model at risk. In a resolution in June 2020, Parliament called the unilateral introduction of national security legislation a comprehensive assault on Hong Kong’s autonomy, the rule of law and fundamental freedoms. China is bound by the Joint Declaration, which was registered with the UN as a legally binding treaty, to uphold Hong Kong’s high degree of autonomy and its rights and freedoms.

In a resolution in January 2021, on the crackdown on the democratic opposition in Hong Kong, Parliament called for the immediate and unconditional release of those arrested in Hong Kong in the first two weeks of 2021, and of all those previously arrested on charges under the NSL. Parliament urged the authorities to respect Hong Kong’s rule of law, human rights, democratic principles and high degree of autonomy, and to immediately refrain from making further use of the NSL to suppress the rights to freedom of expression, peaceful assembly and association.

In July 2021 Parliament passed a resolution on Hong Kong, notably the case of Apple Daily,condemning restrictions on the freedom of expression, and urging the Hong Kong authorities to immediately and unconditionally release all journalists and other activists arrested under the NSL and drop all charges against them.

In January 2022, Parliament passed another resolution on violations of fundamental freedoms in Hong Kong, strongly condemning the targeted attacks against the opposition at large, whether NGOs, media outlets or civilians. The resolution proposed the creation of academic opportunities on humanitarian grounds for people in Hong Kong who are suffering as a result of China’s coercive position.

D. Japan

Having been strategic partners since 2003, the EU and Japan share fundamental values such as respect for human rights, democracy and the rule of law, as well as a strong commitment to sustainable development, multilateralism and a rules-based World Trade Organization (WTO) system. Japan is committed to the effective implementation of the Paris Agreement on climate change and to other multilateral environmental agreements. However, there are some issues that cause concern for the EU: Japan’s application of the death penalty, whaling and parental abductions of EU children in Japan.

The EU and Japan upgraded their bilateral strategic relationship in February 2019 with the provisional implementation of the Strategic Partnership Agreement and the entry into force of the Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA). The EPA is the most important bilateral trade agreement ever concluded by the EU, as it covers nearly one third of global gross domestic product (GDP), almost 40% of world trade and over 600 million people. The EPA also contains commitments on trade in both goods and services, and provides a framework that promotes bilateral investment. It also sets ambitious targets for sustainable development and includes, for the first time, a specific commitment to the Paris climate agreement. The EU and Japan signed an agreement on civil aviation safety on 22 June 2020. Reciprocity of visa-free travel for EU citizens to Japan remains an issue in bilateral relations, as Japanese nationals enjoy visa-free access to the EU.

Japan is the EU’s second-largest trading partner in Asia, after China, with total trade amounting to EUR 109 billion in 2020. EU exports to Japan amounted to EUR 54.9 billion in 2020. The EU had a trade surplus in goods of EUR 0.5 billion. As for trade in services, in 2018 the EU exported EUR 35 billion in services to Japan and imported EUR 18 billion from it, leaving the EU with a surplus of EUR 16.3 billion in trade in services.

The two parties remain committed to enhancing investment relations by concluding a separate investment agreement in the future that would include investor/investment protection standards and a dispute-resolution mechanism. The EU and Japan concluded negotiations on an adequate level of data protection in July 2018 and adopted decisions in January 2019 to recognise each other’s data protection systems as ‘equivalent’, creating the world’s largest area of secure data flows.

As a result of COVID-19, the 2020 EU-Japan Summit in Tokyo was transformed into the EU-Japan Leaders’ meeting on 26 May 2020. The leaders reaffirmed their commitment to pooling efforts to tackle the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and working together on the development of vaccines. In the framework of the the G7, the EU and Japan have also committed themselves to pursuing an acceleration of the global economic recovery. They also undertook to cooperate on climate change and research, viewing the Green Deal and the Digital Agenda as means of further strengthening cooperation. The EU and Japan re-confirmed their cooperation on peace and security as well as on fighting against disinformation campaigns.

On 25 January 2021, the Council of the European Union held a discussion with the Foreign Minister of Japan, Toshimitsu Motegi, on their respective approaches to the Indo-Pacific, agreeing that enhanced EU engagement in the region, as well as enhanced cooperation with Japan and other like-minded partners, would be beneficial. There was mutual interest in advancing cooperation on connectivity, maritime security, environment and climate change, trade and investment, digital issues, promoting multilateralism and upholding the international rules-based order.

The 28th EU-Japan Summit was held in Tokyo in May 2022 to reaffirm the parties’ commitments under the EU-Japan EPA and Strategic Partnership Agreement, grounded in common interests and the shared values of freedom, respect for human rights, democracy, the rule of law, open, free and fair trade, effective multilateralism and the rules-based international order. EU-Japan leaders demanded that Russia immediately stop its military aggression against Ukraine, and unconditionally withdraw all its forces and fully respect Ukraine’s territorial integrity, sovereignty, and independence within its internationally recognised borders. Leaders supported Ukraine in cooperation with the G7 and other like-minded countries with further sanctions against Russia. European Council President Charles Michel said that Japan is the EU’s closest strategic partner in the Indo-Pacific region and that Russia’s war against Ukraine has shown that deeper cooperation is a vital necessity. The EU and Japan also adopted a joint statement and launched the digital partnership to promote cooperation and to help ensure a successful digital transformation that delivers solidarity, prosperity and sustainability. Leaders also discussed how to cooperate to keep global energy markets stable and help ensure diversification of energy supply sources and security of supply. On security and defence, the EU and Japan pledged to further enhance their close consultations, including on non-proliferation and disarmament and on countering hybrid threats. The EU and Japan will continue to implement the EU-Japan Green Alliance, launched at the 2021 summit. They reaffirmed the importance of cooperation in areas such as cleaner hydrogen, nuclear safety, renewable energy and carbon recycling.

As an integral part of the upgrading of the EU-Japan bilateral strategic relationship, the European Parliament and the Japanese Diet are strengthening their interparliamentary dialogue. This led to Parliament passing two resolutions in December 2018: an accompanying resolution to the conclusion of the EU-Japan Strategic Partnership and an accompanying resolution to the conclusion of the EU-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement. In July 2020, Parliament passed a resolution on the international and domestic parental abduction of EU children in Japan highlighting the situation of children affected by parental child abduction in Japan, underlining the fact that relevant laws and judicial decisions are not being enforced. Other important resolutions for relations with Japan adopted recently are the resolutions of 21 January 2021 onconnectivity and EU-Asia relations, of 7 June 2022 on the EU and the security challenges in the Indo-Pacific and of 5 July 2022 on the Indo-Pacific strategy in the area of trade and investment.

Following the resignation of Japan’s longest-serving Prime Minister, Shinzo Abe, the new Prime Minister, Yoshihide Suga, took office in September 2020, and was succeeded by Fumio Kishida in early October 2021. General elections were held in Japan on 31 October 2021 to elect members to the House of Representatives for four years. The ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) maintained a comfortable majority, albeit losing some seats.

Japan and the world were deeply shocked by the murder of the former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe on 8 July 2022 in Nara, where he was campaigning for the 2022 Japanese House of Councillors election. The elections were held only two days later on 10 July 2022 to elect half of the upper house for six years. The LDP modestly increased its seats and a new record was set with 28% of seats being won by female candidates.

E. South Korea (Republic of Korea)

EU-South Korea relations date back to the 1997 Agreement on cooperation and mutual administrative assistance in customs matters.

South Korea is one of the EU’s top 10 strategic partners, and the EU-South Korea strategic partnership is built on three main pillars, underpinned by three key agreements:

  • The EU-South Korea Framework Agreement, in force since June 2014, providing the overall structure for the strategic partnership and comprehensive bilateral cooperation. The Joint Committee ensures and monitors its implementation.
  • The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (FTA), ratified in December 2015. South Korea was the first Asian country to sign an FTA with the EU, and this FTA is the one of the EU’s most ambitious trade deals, going further than any previous agreements. The FTA aims at removing barriers to bilateral trade, creating an expanded and secure market for goods and services, and creating a stable environment for investment.
  • The EU-South Korea Crisis Management Framework Participation Agreement (FPA), in force since 2016, which reinforces the strategic partnership for security issues by allowing South Korea to take part in EU crisis management operations of a civilian and military character. The FPA also facilitates South Korean involvement in the EU’s common security and defence policy (CSDP) missions and operations to improve the effectiveness of crisis response.

The 18th meeting of the EU-South Korea Joint Committee was held in Seoul in June 2022. The committee condemned Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and concurred that Russia must respect Ukraine’s territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence within its internationally recognised borders. The EU and South Korea also pledged to join forces in strengthening the implementation of the Paris Agreement, including in the run-up to COP27 in Sharm El Sheikh, and to foster the adoption of a highly ambitious post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework in the run-up to COP15 in Montreal, supported by a transition to a circular economy and clean energy. They also explored the prospects for establishing an EU-Republic of Korea Green Partnership.

In May 2021, South Korea hosted the 2021 P4G Seoul (environmental) Summit, which issued the Seoul Declaration advocating keeping the rise in global temperature from pre-industrial levels at below 2 ºC, instead of 1.5 ºC. Leaders encouraged increased national spending on cutting greenhouse gases, accelerating efforts to transition away from non-renewable energy sources and cooperating on resolving the issue of plastic waste in marine ecosystems.

Since 2011 bilateral trade has continued to grow, even during the COVID-19 pandemic, and it reached almost EUR 90 billion in 2020. Total trade in goods grew by 45.9% between 2010 and 2020. In 2020, the EU was South Korea’s third-largest source of imports (11.8%) and the fourth-largest destination of exports (9.3%). However, in some areas, challenges remain and the EU is calling on South Korea to remove persistent obstacles to imports of EU animal products, and for ratification of the pending International Labour Organization (ILO) convention (No 105) on forced labour.

South Korea’s science and technology sector is one of the most advanced in the world. It seeks to focus on innovation and has an impressive record in robotics and artificial intelligence, opening up new opportunities to step up scientific and technological cooperation with the EU. Closer cooperation has already been established in the field of cyber threats, as South Korea has a highly digitalised economy and is developing a national cybersecurity strategy, following hacks and attacks affecting millions of people and official websites. North Korea (DPRK) has been accused of plotting most of the major cyberattacks. In November 2020, the EU and South Korea held their sixth cyber dialogue, which led to joint support for the establishment of a programme of action. The programme will help disseminate responsible behaviour in cyberspace and address cyber issues in the context of international security within the United Nations. The presidential elections held in March 2022 were won by conservative Yoon Suk-yeol, following a tightly contested race. President Yoon secured a narrow victory over the Democratic Party’s Lee Jae-myung based on promises to tackle class inequality. The eighth local elections were held in June 2022 and coincided with the by-elections for the vacant seats in the National Assembly. It was the first nationwide election under President Yoon Suk-yeol after he took office on 10 May 2022. President Yoon Suk-yeol’s governing party won 12 of the 17 races for big-city mayors and provincial governors, further expanding Yoon’s conservative influence less than three months after he won the presidential election.

In April 2021, South Korea completed the ratification of three major ILO conventions: the Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize Convention, the Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining Convention and the Forced Labour Convention, but the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention has still to be ratified.

South Korea claims that Japan still owes the country reparations from the Second World War. Relations remain strained despite efforts to restore ties under a treaty in 1965. A particularly contentious issue is that of ‘comfort women’ (women who were sex slaves between 1932 and 1945). South Korea has also raised concerns over Japan’s plans to release contaminated water from its Fukushima power station back into the Pacific Ocean, which will adversely affect marine life and consequently the fishing industry. President Yoon Suk-yeol’s foreign policy approach has involved a rapprochement with Japan in order to solve current disputes and trade barriers. After years on hold due to the COVID-19 pandemic, South Korea and the United States resumed their joint military drills in August 2022, following President Yoon Suk-yeol’s decision to boost deterrence. Previously, the United States, South Korea and Japan participated in a ballistic missile defence exercise off Hawaii’s coast in spring 2022, demonstrating the improved relations between Seoul and Tokyo.

Parliament is extremely concerned about inter-Korean relations. Three inter-Korean summits to seek denuclearisation took place between April and September 2018, but dialogue and cooperation stalled following the 2019 US-DPRK Hanoi summit and worsened again in August 2019 following a joint US-South Korea military drill. Tensions came to a head with North Korea’s launch of short-range missiles in March 2020 and with the explosion in June 2020 at the inter-Korean liaison office in Kaesong and the death of a South Korean citizen in North Korean territory. South Korean President Yoon Suk-yeol announced on 15 August 2022 that he would offer a large-scale aid package to Pyongyang in exchange for denuclearisation, which would significantly improve North Korea’s economy if the country embarks on a genuine and substantial process of denuclearisation. The EU supports a diplomatic solution to the Korean nuclear crisis and intends to continue its strategy of critical engagement. Parliament is the only EU institution that has formal diplomatic relations with North Korea.

F. North Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea)

The EU has a policy of ‘critical engagement’ towards North Korea, which combines pressure in the form of sanctions and other measures with open communication channels. Bilateral relations are limited and no bilateral political or commercial treaties are in force. Excluding humanitarian assistance, the EU’s development cooperation is mainly related to food security and is subject to political considerations, UN sanctions and other constraints. The EU does not have a bilateral development assistance programme with North Korea. Six EU Member States maintain embassies in Pyongyang, alongside the French Cultural Cooperation Office. A significant number of EU Member States have accredited their ambassadors resident in Seoul to North Korea. The closure of the borders by North Korea in January 2020 has led to difficulties rotating staff in and out of the country and the diplomatic presence has been reduced.

The EU’s sanctions against North Korea, which were adopted in response to the country’s nuclear weapons and ballistic missile development activities, are the toughest against any country. The EU has implemented all relevant UN Security Council (UNSC) resolutions and has put its own autonomous sanctions regime in place, which complements and reinforces the UN sanctions. In September 2020, the EU conducted a fourth round of approaches to non-EU countries encouraging them to fully implement the UNSC resolutions. On 22 March 2021, the EU announced human rights-related sanctions on North Korea for the first time under the EU Global Human Rights Sanctions regime. The list includes two ministers as well as the Central Public Prosecutor’s Office for aiding repressive activities.

North Korea stepped up its nuclear programme in 2017, heightening tensions with the United States and South Korea. Although US policy has been to apply maximum pressure, former South Korean President Moon Jae-in engaged in de-escalation and met North Korean leader Kim Jong-un three times in 2018. However, after the failed 2019 Summit in Hanoi between President Trump and Kim Jong-un, tensions and mistrust increased. Since July 2021, the International Atomic Energy Agency reported increasing nuclear activity at the Yongbyon Nuclear Research Centre, with a five-megawatt experimental reactor. While denouncing the United States and South Korea in August 2021 for their joint military drills, North Korea announced that it would extend its nuclear programme if the United States does not stop its policy of sanctions. Since September 2021, North Korea has conducted tests with new long-range cruise missiles that can fly lower and with very flat trajectories, which makes them difficult to intercept. It conducted its biggest ballistic missile tests in 2022, showing that its intercontinental missiles could reach the United States. Tensions were heightened in March 2022 by North Korea’s launching of a new type of intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), Hwasong-17, its biggest missile to date, whose altitude surpasses that of any previous ICBM tested, reaching 6 000 km. North Korean leader Kim Jong-un gave a speech suggesting that more nuclear tests will take place over the course of 2022. South Korea is strengthening its defensive capabilities and military cooperation with the United States, including by taking part in large-scale joint military exercises and deploying additional US air missile defence systems. North Korea’s strategy is to force the United States to reopen negotiations about sanctions and humanitarian relief. Tensions have affected inter-Korean relations and increased regional security risks. North Korea’s return to missile tests in 2022, along with Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, marks a great challenge to South Korean President Yoon Seok-yeol, who is adopting a hardline approach.

The EU has condemned the missile launches, calling on North Korea to comply with its obligations under UNSC resolutions and to refrain from all actions that undermine the environment for pursuing diplomacy and dialogue. The EU is committed to denuclearisation. Until North Korea complies with its obligations under UNSC resolutions, the EU will continue to implement sanctions strictly while encouraging the international community to do the same. Parliament has passed several resolutions condemning North Korea’s nuclear and missile programmes and has expressed grave concerns about the deteriorating human rights situation in the country.

In September 2022, North Korea’s Supreme People’s Assembly passed a law which makes the country’s nuclear status irreversible and allows for pre-emptive nuclear strikes if an imminent attack is detected.

 

Jorge Soutullo / Samuel Cantell / Stefania Gazzina / Airis Meier